• Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons.
• Eastern and central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse people. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture.
• The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions–the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland–as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German speaking. It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
• In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.
• In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
• Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subjects peasant peoples–Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.
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