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• During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalist groups became increasing intolerant of each other and over ready to go to war. • The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans. The Balkan was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising Romania, Bulgaria,

• The artist in the 18th and 19th centuries personify nations as a female figures that did not resemble for any particular woman in real life. • The female figure became an allegory of the nation, to portray ideas such as liberty, justice and the republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols.

• The period between 1830–1848 is symbolised with the age of revolutions. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. Louis Philippe was made a constitutional monarch. Belgium got separated from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. • The Greek war of Independence started

GERMANY UNIFICATION • After 1848, nationalist feeling were widespread among middle class Germans. • Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states. • National feelings were widespread among middle-class German. Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. • The Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process

• During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground. • Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. • Most of these revolutionaries saw the creation of nation-states as an essential part of this struggle for freedom. • The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini

• In 1815, Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively defeated Napoleon and to make a settlement, the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was signed. According to the provisions of this treaty, the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power, France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon. • A series of states were set up

• The term ‘liberalism’ is taken from the Latin word liber which means free. • The ideology of liberalism emerged which ended the state interference in the economic life of society. Freedom of markets was achieved and state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital were abolished. Napoleon’s administrative measures were altered. • For

• A landed aristocracy was the dominant class of the continent, socially and politically. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. • Industrialisation began in France and parts of the German states during the nineteenth century. New social groups came into being: a working-class

• Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons. • Eastern and central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse people. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. • The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a